Terrain features.

Drainage characteristics.

Vegetation.

Climate.

Coasts and landing beaches.

Roads and bridges.

Railroads.

Airfields.

Urban areas.

Electric power.

Fuels.

Surface water resources.

Ground water resources.

Natural construction materials.

Cross-country movements.

Suitability for airfield construction.

Airborne operations.

2-7. MILITARY MAP SUBSTITUTES

If military maps are not available, use substitute maps. The substitute maps can range from foreign military or commercial maps to field sketches. The DMA can provide black and white reproductions of many foreign maps and can produce its own maps based upon intelligence.

a.   Foreign Maps. These are maps that have been compiled by nations other than our own. When these must be used, the marginal information and grids are changed to conform to our standards if time permits. The scales may differ from our maps, but they do express the ratio of map distance to ground distance and can be used in the same way. The legend must be used since the map symbols almost always differ from ours. Because the accuracy of foreign maps varies considerably, they are usually evaluated in regard to established accuracy standards before they are issued to our troops. (See Appendix I for additional information. )

b.   Atlases. These are collections of maps of regions, countries, continents, or the world. Such maps are accurate only to a degree and can be used for general information only.

c.   Geographic Maps. These maps give an overall idea of the mapped area in relation to climate, population, relief, vegetation, and hydrography. They also show general location of major urban areas.

d.   Tourist Road Maps. These are maps of a region in which the main means of transportation and areas of interest are shown. Some of these maps show secondary networks of roads, historic sites, museums, and beaches in detail. They may contain road and time distance between points. Careful consideration should be exercised about the scale when using these maps.

e.   City/Utility Maps. These are maps of urban areas showing streets, water ducts, electricity and telephone lines, and sewers.

f.   Field Sketches. These are preliminary drawings of an area or piece of terrain. (See Appendix A.)

g.   Aerial Photographs. These can be used as map supplements or substitutes to help you analyze the terrain, plan your route, or guide your movement. (See Chapter 8 for additional information).

2-8. STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

Accuracy is the degree of conformity with which horizontal positions and vertical values are represented on a map in relation to an established standard. This standard is determined by the DMA based on user requirements. A map can be considered to meet accuracy requirement standards unless otherwise specified in the marginal information.

CHAPTER 3

MARGINAL INFORMATION AND SYMBOLS

3-1. MARGINAL INFORMATION ON A MILITARY MAP

Figure 3-1 shows a reduced version of a large-scale topographic map. The circled numbers indicate the items of marginal information that the map user needs to know. These circled numbers correspond to the following listed items.

a.   Sheet Name (1). The sheet name is found in bold print at the center of the top and in the lower left area of the map margin. A map is generally named for the settlement contained within the area covered by the sheet, or for the largest natural feature located within the area at the time the map was drawn.

b.   Sheet Number (2). The sheet number is found in bold print in both the upper right and lower left areas of the margin, and in the center box of the adjoining sheets diagram, which is found in the lower right margin. It is used as a reference number to link specific maps to overlays, operations orders, and plans. For maps at 1:100,000 scale and larger, sheet numbers are based on an arbitrary system that makes possible the ready orientation of maps at scales of 1:100,000, 1:50,000, and 1:25,000.

c.   Series Name (3). The map series name is found in the same bold print as the sheet number in the upper left corner of the margin. The name given to the series is generally that of a major political subdivision, such as a state within the United States or a European nation. A map series usually includes a group of similar maps at the same scale and on the same sheet lines or format designed to cover a particular geographic area. It may also be a group of maps that serve a common purpose, such as the military city maps.

d.   Scale (4). The scale is found both in the upper left margin after the series name, and in the center of the lower margin. The scale note is a representative fraction that gives the ratio of a map distance to the corresponding distance on the earth's surface. For example, the scale note 1:50,000 indicates that one unit of measure on the map equals 50,000 units of the same measure on the ground.

e.   Series Number (5). The series number is found in both the upper right margin and the lower left margin. It is a sequence reference expressed either as a four-digit numeral (1125) or as a letter, followed by a three- or four-digit numeral (M661; T7110).

f.   Edition Number (6). The edition number is found in bold print in the upper right area of the top margin and the lower left area of the bottom margin. Editions are numbered consecutively; therefore, if you have more than one edition, the highest numbered sheet is the most recent. Most military maps are now published by the DMA, but older editions of maps may have been produced by the US Army Map Service. Still others may have been drawn, at least in part, by the US Army Corps of Engineers, the US  Geological Survey, or other agencies affiliated or not with the United States or allied governments. The credit line, telling who produced the map, is just above the legend. The map information date is found immediately below the word "LEGEND" in the lower left margin of the map. This date is important when determining how accurately the map data might be expected to match what you will encounter on the ground.

g.   Index to Boundaries (7). The index to boundaries diagram appears in the lower or right margin of all sheets. This diagram, which is a miniature of the map, shows the boundaries that occur within the map area, such as county lines and state boundaries.

h.   Adjoining Sheets Diagram (8). Maps at all standard scales contain a diagram that illustrates the adjoining sheets. On maps at 1:100,000 and larger scales and at 1:1,000,000 scale, the diagram is called the index to adjoining sheets. It consists of as many rectangles representing adjoining sheets as are necessary to surround the rectangle that represents the sheet under consideration. The diagram usually contains nine rectangles, but the number may vary depending on the locations of the adjoining sheets. All represented sheets are identified by their sheet numbers. Sheets of an adjoining series, whether published or planned, that are at the same scale are represented by dashed lines. The series number of the adjoining series is indicated along the appropriate side of the division line between the series.

i.   Elevation Guide (9). This is normally found in the lower right margin. It is a miniature characterization of the terrain shown. The terrain is represented by bands of elevation, spot elevations, and major drainage features. The elevation guide provides the map reader with a means of rapid recognition of major landforms.

j.   Declination Diagram (10). This is located in the lower margin of large-scale maps and indicates the angular relationships of true north, grid north, and magnetic north. On maps at 1:250,000 scale, this information is expressed as a note in the lower margin. In recent edition maps, there is a note indicating the conversion of azimuths from grid to magnetic and from magnetic to grid next to the declination diagram.

k.   Bar Scales (11). These are located in the center of the lower margin. They are rulers used to convert map distance to ground distance. Maps have three or more bar scales, each in a different unit of measure. Care should be exercised when using the scales, especially in the selection of the unit of measure that is needed.

l.   Contour Interval Note (12). This note is found in the center of the lower margin normally below the bar scales. It states the vertical distance between adjacent contour lines of the map. When supplementary contours are used, the interval is indicated. In recent edition maps, the contour interval is given in meters instead of feet.

m.   Spheroid Note (13). This note is located in the center of the lower margin. Spheriods (ellipsoids) have specific parameters that define the X Y Z axis of the earth. The spheriod is an integral part of the datum.

n.   Grid Note (14). This note is located in the center of the lower margin. It gives information pertaining to the grid system used and the interval between grid lines, and it identifies the UTM grid zone number.

o.   Projection Note (15). The projection system is the framework of the map. For military maps, this framework is of the conformal type; that is, small areas of the surface of the earth retain their true shapes on the projection; measured angles closely approximate true values; and the scale factor is the same in all directions from a point. The projection note is located in the center of the lower margin. Refer to DMA for the development characteristics of the conformal-type projection systems.

(1)   Between 80° south and 84° north, maps at scales larger than 1:500,000 are based on the transverse Mercator projection. The note reads TRANSVERSE MERCATOR PROJECTION.

(2)   Between 80° south and 84° north, maps at 1:1,000,000 scale and smaller are based on standard parallels of the lambert conformal conic projection. The note reads, for example, LAMBERT CONFORMAL CONIC PROJECTIONS 36° 40' N AND 39° 20' N.

(3)   Maps of the polar regions (south of 80° south and north of 84° north) at 1:1,000,000 and larger scales are based on the polar stereographic projection. The note reads POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION.

p.   Vertical Datum Note (16). This note is located in the center of the lower margin. The vertical datum or vertical-control datum is defined as any level surface (for example, mean sea level) taken as a surface of reference from which to determine elevations. In the United States, Canada, and Europe, the vertical datum refers to the mean sea level surface. However, in parts of Asia and Africa, the vertical-control datum may vary locally and is based on an assumed elevation that has no connection to any sea level surface. Map readers should habitually check the vertical datum note on maps, particularly if the map is used for low-level aircraft navigation, naval gunfire support, or missile target acquisition.

q.   Horizontal Datum Note (17). This note is located in the center of the lower margin. The horizontal datum or horizontal-control datum is defined as a geodetic reference point (of which five quantities are known: latitude, longitude, azimuth of a line from this point, and two constants, which are the parameters of reference ellipsoid). These are the basis for horizontal-control surveys. The horizontal-control datum may extend over a continent or be limited to a small local area. Maps and charts produced by DMA are produced on 32 different horizontal-control data. Map readers should habitually check the horizontal datum note on every map or chart, especially adjacent map sheets. This is to ensure the products are based on the same horizontal datum. If products are based on different horizontal-control data, coordinate transformations to a common datum must be performed. UTM coordinates from the same point computed on different data may differ as much as 900 meters.

r.   Control Note (18). This note is located in the center of the lower margin. It indicates the special agencies involved in the control of the technical aspects of all the information that is disseminated on the map.

s.   Preparation Note (19). This note is located in the center of the lower margin. It indicates the agency responsible for preparing the map.

t.   Printing Note (20). This note is also located in the center of the lower margin. It indicates the agency responsible for printing the map and the date the map was printed. The printing data should not be used to determine when the map information was obtained.

u.   Grid Reference Box (21). This box is normally located in the center of the lower margin. It contains instructions for composing a grid reference.

v.   Unit imprint and Symbol (22). The unit imprint and symbol is on the left side of the lower margin. It identifies the agency that prepared and printed the map with its respective symbol. This information is important to the map user in evaluating the reliability of the map.

w.   Legend (23). The legend is located in the lower left margin. It illustrates and identifies the topographic symbols used to depict some of the more prominent features on the map. The symbols are not always the same on every map. Always refer to the legend to avoid errors when reading a map.

Figure 3-1. Topographical map.

3-2. ADDITIONAL NOTES

Not all maps contain the same items of marginal information. Under certain conditions, special notes and scales may be added to aid the map user. The following are examples:

a.   Glossary. This is an explanation of technical terms or a translation of terms on maps of foreign areas where the native language is other than English.

b.   Classification. Certain maps require a note indicating the security classification. This is shown in the upper and lower margins.

c.   Protractor Scale. This scale may appear in the upper margin on some maps. It is used to lay out the magnetic-grid declination for the map, which, in turn, is used to orient the map sheet with the aid of the lensatic compass.

d.   Coverage Diagram. On maps at scales of 1:100,000 and larger, a coverage diagram may be used. It is normally in the lower or right margin and indicates the methods by which the map was made, dates of photography, and reliability of the sources. On maps at 1:250,000 scale, the coverage diagram is replaced by a reliability diagram.

e.   Special Notes (24). A special note is any statement of general information that relates to the mapped area. It is normally found in the lower right margin. For example: This map is red-light readable.

f.   User's Note (25). This note is normally located in the lower right-hand margin. It requests cooperation in correcting errors or omissions on the map. Errors should be marked and the map forwarded to the agency identified in the note.

g.   Stock Number Identification (26). All maps published by the DMA that are in the Department of the Army map supply system contain stock number identifications that are used in requisitioning map supplies. The identification consists of the words "STOCK NO" followed by a unique designation that is composed of the series number, the sheet number of the individual map and, on recently printed sheets, the edition number. The designation is limited to 15 units (letters and numbers). The first 5 units are allotted to the series number; when the series number is less than 5 units, the letter "X" is substituted as the fifth unit. The sheet number is the next component; however, Roman numerals, which are part of the sheet number, are converted to Arabic numerals in the stock number. The last 2 units are the edition number; the first digit of the edition number is a zero if the number is less than 10. If the current edition number is unknown, the number 01 is used. The latest available edition will be furnished. Asterisks are placed between the sheet number and the edition number when necessary to ensure there are at least 11 units in the stock number.

h.   Conversion Graph (27). Normally found in the right margin, this graph indicates the conversion of different units of measure used on the map.

3-3. TOPOGRAPHIC MAP SYMBOLS

The purpose of a map is to permit one to visualize an area of the earth's surface with pertinent features properly positioned. The map's legend contains the symbols most commonly used in a particular series or on that specific topographic map sheet. Therefore, the legend should be referred to each time a new map is used. Every effort is made to design standard symbols that resemble the features they represent. If this is not possible, symbols are selected that logically imply the features they portray. For example, an open-pit mining operation is represented by a small black drawing of a crossed hammer and pickax.

a.   Ideally, all the features within an area would appear on a map in their true proportion, position, and shape. This, however, is not practical because many of the features would be unimportant and others would be unrecognizable because of their reduction in size.

b.   The mapmaker has been forced to use symbols to represent the natural and man-made features of the earth's surface. These symbols resemble, as closely as possible, the actual features themselves as viewed from above. They are positioned in such a manner that the center of the symbol remains in its true location. An exception to this would be the position of a feature adjacent to a major road. If the width of the road has been exaggerated, then the feature is moved from its true position to preserve its relation to the road. Field Manual 21-31 gives a description of topographic features and abbreviations authorized for use on our military maps.

3-4. MILITARY SYMBOLS

In addition to the topographic symbols used to represent the natural and man-made features of the earth, military personnel require some method for showing identity, size, location, or movement of soldiers; and military activities and installations. The symbols used to represent these military features are known as military symbols. These symbols are not normally printed on maps because the features and units that they represent are constantly moving or changing; military security is also a consideration. They do appear in special maps and overlays (Chapter 7). The map user draws them in, in accordance with proper security precautions. Refer to FM 101-5-1 for complete information on military symbols.

3-5. COLORS USED ON A MILITARY MAP

By the fifteenth century, most European maps were carefully colored. Profile drawings of mountains and hills were shown in brown, rivers and lakes in blue, vegetation in green, roads in yellow, and special information in red. A look at the legend of a modern map confirms that the use of colors has not changed much over the past several hundred years. To facilitate the identification of features on a map, the topographical and cultural information is usually printed in different colors. These colors may vary from map to map. On a standard large-scale topographic map, the colors used and the features each represent are:

a.   Black. Indicates cultural (man-made) features such as buildings and roads, surveyed spot elevations, and all labels.

b.   Red-Brown. The colors red and brown are combined to identify cultural features, all relief features, non-surveyed spot elevations, and elevation, such as contour lines on red-light readable maps.

c.   Blue. Identifies hydrography or water features such as lakes, swamps, rivers, and drainage.

d.   Green. Identifies vegetation with military significance, such as woods, orchards, and vineyards.

e.   Brown. Identifies all relief features and elevation, such as contours on older edition maps, and cultivated land on red-light readable maps.

f.   Red. Classifies cultural features, such as populated areas, main roads, and boundaries, on older maps.

g.   Other. Occasionally other colors may be used to show special information. These are indicated in the marginal information as a rule.

CHAPTER 4

GRIDS

4-1. REFERENCE SYSTEM

4-2. GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATES

a.   The distance of a point north or south of the equator is known as its latitude. The rings around the earth parallel to the equator are called parallels of latitude or simply parallels. Lines of latitude run east-west but north-south distances are measured between them.

b.   A second set of rings around the globe at right angles to lines of latitude and passing through the poles is known as meridians of longitude or simply meridians. One meridian is designated as the prime meridian. The prime meridian of the system we use runs through Greenwich, England and is known as the Greenwich meridian. The distance east or west of a prime meridian to a point is known as its longitude. Lines of longitude (meridians) run north-south but east-west distances are measured between them (Figures 4-1 and 4-2).

Figure 4-1. Prime meridian and equator.


Figure 4-2. Reference lines.

c.   Geographic coordinates are expressed in angular measurement. Each circle is divided into 360 degrees, each degree into 60 minutes, and each minute into 60 seconds. The degree is symbolized by ° , the minute by 2, and the second by 3. Starting with 0° at the equator, the parallels of latitude are numbered to 90° both north and south. The extremities are the north pole at 90° north latitude and the south pole at 90° south latitude. Latitude can have the same numerical value north or south of the equator, so the direction N or S must always be given. Starting with 0° at the prime meridian, longitude is measured both east and west around the world. Lines east of the prime meridian are numbered to 180° and identified as east longitude; lines west of the prime meridian are numbered to 180° and identified as west longitude. The direction E or W must always be given. The line directly opposite the prime meridian, 180° , may be referred to as either east or west longitude. The values of geographic coordinates, being in units of angular measure, will mean more if they are compared with units of measure with which we are more familiar. At any point on the earth, the ground distance covered by one degree of latitude is about 111 kilometers (69 miles); one second is equal to about 30 meters (100 feet). The ground distance covered by one degree of longitude at the equator is also about 111 kilometers, but decreases as one moves north or south, until it becomes zero at the poles. For example, one second of longitude represents about 30 meters (100 feet) at the equator; but at the latitude of Washington, DC, one second of longitude is about 24 meters (78 feet). Latitude and longitude are illustrated in Figure 4-3.

Figure 4-3. Latitude and longitude.

d.   Geographic coordinates appear on all standard military maps; on some they may be the only method of locating and referencing a specific point. The four lines that enclose the body of the map (neatlines) are latitude and longitude lines. Their values are given in degrees and minutes at each of the four corners. On a portion of the Columbus map (Figure 4-4), the figures 32° 15' and 84° 45' appear at the lower right corner. The bottom line of this map is latitude 32° 15'00 3N, and the line running up the right side is longitude 84° 45'00"W. In addition to the latitude and longitude given for the four corners, there are, at regularly spaced intervals along the sides of the map, small tick marks extending into the body of the map. Each of these tick marks is identified by its latitude or longitude value. Near the top of the right side of the map is a tick mark and the number 20'. The full value for this tick marks is 32° 20'00" of latitude. At one-third and two-thirds of the distance across the map from the 20' tick mark will be found a cross tick mark (grid squares 0379 and 9679) and at the far side another 20' tick mark. By connecting the tick marks and crosses with straight lines, a 32° 20'00" line of latitude can be added to the map. This procedure is also used to locate the 32° 25'00" line of latitude. For lines of longitude, the same procedure is followed using the tick marks along the top and bottom edges of the map.

e.   After the parallels and meridians have been drawn, the geographic interval (angular distance between two adjacent lines) must be determined. Examination of the values given at the tick marks gives the interval. For most maps of scale 1:25,000, the interval is 2'30". For the Columbus map and most maps of scale 1:50,000, it is 5'00". The geographic coordinates of a point are found by dividing the sides of the geographic square in which the point is located into the required number of equal parts. If the geographic interval is 5'00" and the location of a point is required to the nearest second, each side of the geographic square must be divided into 300 equal parts (5'00" = 300"), each of which would have a value of one second. Any scale or ruler that has 300 equal divisions and is as long as or longer than the spacing between the lines may be used.

f.   The following steps will determine the geographic coordinates of Wilkinson Cemetery (northwest of the town of Cusseta) on the Columbus map.

(1)   Draw the parallels and meridians on the map that encloses the area around the cemetery.

(2)   Determine the values of the parallels and meridians where the point falls.

Latitude 32° 15'00" and 32° 20'00".

Longitude 84° 45'00" and 84° 50'00".

(3)   Determine the geographic interval (5'00" = 300").

(4)   Select a scale that has 300 small divisions or multiples thereof (300 divisions, one second each; 150 divisions, two seconds each; 75 divisions, four seconds each, and so forth).

(5)   To determine the latitude 

(a)   Place the scale with the 0 of the scale on the latitude of the lowest number value (32° 15'00") and the 300 of the scale on the highest numbered line (32° 20'00") (1, Figure 4-4).

(b)   While keeping the 0 and 300 on the two lines, slide the scale (2, Figure 4-4) along the parallels until the Wilkinson Cemetery symbol is along the edge of the numbered scale.

(c)   Read the number of seconds from the scale (3, Figure 4-4), about 246.

(d)   Convert the number of seconds to minutes and seconds (246" = 4'06") and add to the value of the lower numbered line (32° 15'00" + 4'06" = 32° 19'06") (4, Figure 4-4).

RESULTS:

Figure 4-4. Determining latitude.

(6)   Determine the longitude, repeat the same steps but measure between lines of longitude and use E and W. The geographic coordinates of Wilkinson Cemetery should be about 32° 19'06"N and 84° 47'32"W (Figure 4-5).

Figure 4-5. Determining longitude.

g.   To locate a point on the Columbus map (Figure 4-6) when knowing the geographic coordinates, many of the same steps are followed. To locate 32° 25'28"N and 84° 50'56"W, first find the geographic lines within which the point falls: latitude 32° 25'00" and 32° 30'0"; and longitude 84° 50'00" and 84° 55'00". Subtract the lower latitude/longitude from the higher latitude/longitude.

Figure 4-6. Determining geographic coordinates.

(1)   Place the 0 of the scale on the 32° 25'00" line and the 300 on the 32° 30'00". Make a mark at the number 28 on the scale (the difference between the lower and higher latitude).

(2)   Place the 0 of the scale on the 84° 50 200 3 line and the 300 on the 84° 50 255 3. Make a mark at the number 56 on the scale (the difference between the lower and higher longitude.

(3)   Draw a vertical line from the mark at 56 and a horizontal line from the mark at 28; they intersect at 32 25�28"N and 84 50�56"W.

h.   If you do not have a scale or ruler with 300 equal divisions or a map whose interval is other than 5'00", use the proportional parts method. Following the steps determines the geographic coordinates of horizontal control station 141.

(1)   Locate horizontal control station 141 in grid square (GL0784) (Figure 4-7).

Figure 4-7. Using the proportional parts method.

(2)   Find a cross in grid square GL0388 and a tick mark in grid square GL1188 with 25'.

(3)   Find another cross in grid square GL0379 and a tick mark in grid square GL1179 with 20'.

(4)   Enclose the control station by connecting the crosses and tick marks. The control station is between 20' and 25' (Figure 4-7).

(5)   With a boxwood scale, measure the distance from the bottom line to the top line that encloses the area around the control station on the map (total distance) (Figure 4-7).

(6)   Measure the partial distance from the bottom line to the center of the control station (Figure 4-7). These straight-line distances are in direct proportion to the minutes and seconds of latitude and are used to set up a ratio.

RESULTS:

(7)   Follow the same procedures to determine minutes and seconds of longitude (Figure 4-7).

RESULTS:

(8)   The geographic coordinates of horizontal control station 141 in grid square GL0784 are 32° 22'47"N latitude and 84° 47'33"W longitude.

i.   The maps made by some nations do not have their longitude values based on the prime meridian that passes through Greenwich, England. Table 4-1 shows the prime meridians that may be used by other nations. When these maps are issued to our soldiers, a note usually appears in the marginal information giving the difference between our prime meridian and the one used on the map.

4-3. MILITARY GRIDS

a.   Universal Transverse Mercator Grid. The UTM grid has been designed to cover that part of the world between latitude 84° N and latitude 80° S, and, as its name implies, is imposed on the transverse Mercator projection.

(1)   Each of the 60 zones (6 degrees wide) into which the globe is divided for the grid has its own origin at the intersection of its central meridian and the equator (Figure 4-8). The grid is identical in all 60 zones. Base values (in meters) are assigned to the central meridian and the equator, and the grid lines are drawn at regular intervals parallel to these two base lines. With each grid line assigned a value denoting its distance from the origin, the problem of locating any point becomes progressively easier. Normally, it would seem logical to assign a value of zero to the two base lines and measure outward from them. This, however, would require either that directions  N, S, E, or W  be always given with distances, or that all points south of the equator or west of the central meridian have negative values.

Figure 4-8. UTM grid zone location

(2)   This inconvenience is eliminated by assigning "false values" to the base lines, resulting in positive values for all points within each zone. Distances are always measured RIGHT and UP (east and north as the reader faces the map), and the assigned values are called "false easting" and "false northing. " (Figure 4-9). The false eating value for each central meridian is 500,000 meters, and the false northing value for the equator is 0 meters when measuring in the northern hemisphere and 10,000,000 meters when measuring in the southern hemisphere. The use of the UTM grid for point designation will be discussed in detail in paragraph 4-4.

Figure 4-9. False eastings and northings for the UPS grid.

b.   Universal Polar Stereographic Grid. The UPS grid is used to represent the polar regions. (Figure 4-10)

Figure 4-10. Grid zone designation for UPS grid

(1)   North Polar Area. The origin of the UPS grid applied to the north polar area is the north pole. The "north-south" base line is the line formed by the 0-degree and 180-degree meridians; the "east-west" base line is formed by the two 90-degree meridians.

(2)   South Polar Area. The origin of the UPS grid in the south polar area is the south pole. The base lines are similar to those of the north polar area.

4-4. UNITED STATES ARMY MILITARY GRID REFERENCE SYSTEM

a.   Grid Zone Designation. The world is divided into 60 grid zones, which are large, regularly shaped geographic areas, each of which is given a unique identification called the grid zone designation.

(1)   UTM Grid. The first major breakdown is the division of each zone into areas 6° wide by 8° high and 6° wide by 12° high. Remember, for the transverse Mercator projection, the earth's surface between 80° S and 84° N is divided into 60 N-S zones, each 6° wide. These zones are numbered from west to east, 1 through 60, starting at the 180° meridian. This surface is divided into 20 east-west rows in which 19 are 8° high and 1 row at the extreme north is 12° high. These rows are then lettered, from south to north, C through X (I and O were omitted). Any 6° by 8° zone or 6° by 12° zone is identified by giving the number and letter of the grid zone and row in which it lies. These are read RIGHT and UP so the number is always written before the letter. This combination of zone number and row letter constitutes the grid zone designation. Columbus lies in zone 16 and row S, or in grid zone designation 16S (Figure 4-8).

(2)   UPS Grid. The remaining letters of the alphabet, A, B, Y, and Z, are used for the UPS grids. Each polar area is divided into two zones separated by the 0-180° meridian. In the south polar area, the letter A is the grid zone designation for the area west of the 0-180° meridian, and B for the area to the east. In the north polar area, Y is the grid zone designation for the western area and Z for the eastern area (Figure 4-10).

b.   100,000-Meter Square. Between 84° N and 80° S, each 6° by 8° or 6° by 12° zone is covered by 100,000-meter squares that are identified by the combination of two alphabetical letters. This identification is unique within the area covered by the grid zone designation. The first letter is the column designation; the second letter is the row designation (Figure 4-11). The north and south polar areas are also divided into 100,000-meter squares by columns and rows. A detailed discussion of the polar system can be found in Technical Report 8358. 1. The 100,000-meter square identification letters are located in the grid reference box in the lower margin of the map.

Figure 4-11. Grid zone designation and 100,000-meter square identification.

c.   Grid Coordinates. We have now divided the earth's surface into 6° by 8° quadrangles, and covered these with 100,000-meter squares. The military grid reference of a point consists of the numbers and letters indicating in which of these areas the point lies, plus the coordinates locating the point to the desired position within the 100,000-meter square. The next step is to tie in the coordinates of the point with the larger areas. To do this, you must understand the following.

(1)   Grid Lines. The regularly spaced lines that make the UTM and the UPS grid on any large-scale maps are divisions of the 100,000-meter square; the lines are spaced at 10,000- or 1,000-meter intervals (Figure 4-12). Each of these lines is labeled at both ends of the map with its false easting or false northing value, showing its relation to the origin of the zone. Two digits of the values are printed in large type, and these same two digits appear at intervals along the grid lines on the face of the map. These are called the principal digits, and represent the 10,000 and 1,000 digits of the grid value. They are of major importance to the map reader because they are the numbers he will use most often for referencing points. The smaller digits complete the UTM grid designation.

Figure 4-12. Grid lines.

EXAMPLE: The first grid line north of the south-west corner of the Columbus map is labeled 3570000m N. This means its false northing (distance north of the equator) is 3,570,000 meters. The principal digits, 70, identify the line for referencing points in the northerly direction. The smaller digits, 35, are part of the false coordinates and are rarely used. The last three digits, 000, of the value are omitted. Therefore, the first grid line east of the south-west corner is labeled 689000m E. The principal digits, 89, identify the line for referencing points in the easterly direction (Figure 4-13).

Figure 4-13. Columbus map, southwest corner.

(2)   Grid Squares. The north-south and east-west grid lines intersect at 90° , forming grid squares. Normally, the size of one of these grid squares on large-scale maps is 1,000 meters (1 kilometer).

(3)   Grid Coordinate Scales. The primary tool for plotting grid coordinates is the grid coordinate scale. The grid coordinate scale divides the grid square more accurately than can be done by estimation, and the results are more consistent. When used correctly, it presents less chance for making errors. GTA 5-2-12, 1981, contains four types of coordinate scales (Figure 4-14).

Figure 4-14. Coordinate scales.

(a)   The 1:25,000/1:250,000 (lower right in figure) can be used in two different scale maps, 1:25,000 or 1:250,000. The 1:25,000 scale subdivides the 1,000-meter grid block into 10 major subdivisions, each equal to 100 meters. Each 100-meter block has five graduations, each equal to 20 meters. Points falling between the two graduations can be read accurately by the use of estimation. These values are the fourth and eighth digits of the coordinates. Likewise, the 1:250,000 scale is subdivided in 10 major subdivisions, each equal to 1,000 meters. Each 1,000-meter block has five graduations, each equal to 200 meters. Points falling between two graduations can be read approximately by the use of estimation.

(b)   The 1:50,000 scale (upper left in Figure 4-14) subdivides the 1,000-meter block into 10 major subdivisions, each equal to 100 meters. Each 100-meter block is then divided in half. Points falling between the graduations must be estimated to the nearest 10 meters for the fourth and eighth digits of the coordinates.

(c)   The 1:100,000 scale (lower left in Figure 4-14) subdivides the 1,000-meter grid block into five major subdivisions of 200 meters each. Each 200-meter block is then divided in half at 100-meter intervals.

4-5. LOCATE A POINT USING GRID COORDINATES

a.   Without a Coordinate Scale. Determine grids without a coordinate scale by referring to the north-south grid lines numbered at the bottom margin of any map. Then read RIGHT to the north-south grid line that precedes the desired point (this first set of two digits is the RIGHT reading). Then by referring to the east-west grid lines numbered at either side of the map, move UP to the east-west grid line that precedes the desired point (these two digits are the UP reading). Coordinate 1484 locate the 1,000-meter grid square in which point X is located; the next square to the right would be 1584; the next square up would be 1485, and so forth (Figure 4-15). Locate the point to the nearest 100 meters using estimation. Mentally divide the grid square in tenths, estimate the distance from the grid line to the point in the same order (RIGHT and UP). Give complete coordinate RIGHT, then complete coordinate UP. Point X is about two-tenths or 200 meters to the RIGHT into the grid square and about seven-tenths or 700 meters UP.

RESULTS: The coordinates to the nearest 100 meters are 142847.

Figure 4-15. Determining grids without coordinate point.

b.   With a Coordinate Scale (1:25,000). In order to use the coordinate scale for determining grid coordinates, ensure that the appropriate scale is being used on the corresponding map, and that the scale is right side up. To ensure the scale is correctly aligned, place it with the zero-zero point at the lower left corner of the grid square. Keeping the horizontal line of the scale directly on top of the east-west grid line, slide it to the right until the vertical line of the scale touches the point for which the coordinates are desired (Figure 4-16). When reading coordinates, examine the two sides of the coordinate scale to ensure that the horizontal line of the scale is aligned with the east-west grid line, and the vertical line of the scale is parallel with the north-south grid line. Use the scale when precision of more than 100 meters is required. To locate the point to the nearest 10 meters, measure the hundredths of a grid square RIGHT and UP from the grid lines to the point. Point X is about 17 hundredths or 170 meters RIGHT and 84 hundredths or 840 meters UP. The coordinates to the nearest 10 meters are 14178484.

Figure 4-16. Placing a coordinate scale on a grid.

Figure 4-17. Zero-zero point.

c.   1:50,000 Coordinating Scale. On the 1:50,000 coordinate scale, there are two sides: vertical and horizontal. These sides are 1,000 meters in length. The point at which the sides meet is the zero-zero point. Each side is divided into 10 equal 100-meter segments by a long tick mark and number. Each 100-meter segment is subdivided into 50-meter segments by a short tick mark (Figure 4-18). By using interpolation, mentally divide each 50-meter segment into tenths. For example, a point that lies after a whole number but before a short tick mark is identified as 10, 20, 30, or 40 meters and any point that lies after the short tick mark but before the whole number is identified as 60, 70, 80, or 90 meters.

Figure 4-18. 1:50,000 coordinating scale.

d.   Example of Obtaining an Eight-Digit Coordinate Using 1:50,000 Scale. To ensure the scale is correctly aligned, place it with the zero-zero point at the lower left corner of the grid square. Keeping the horizontal line of the scale directly on top of the east-west grid line, slide the scale to the right until the vertical line of the scale touches the point for which the coordinates are desired (Figure 4-19). Reading right, you can see that the point lies 530 meters to the right into the grid square, which gives a right reading of 7853. Reading up, you can see that the point lies 320 meters up into the grid square, giving an up reading of 0032.

Figure 4-19. Example of obtaining an eight-digit coordinate using 1:50,000 scale.

e.   Recording and Reporting Grid Coordinates. Coordinates are written as one continuous number without spaces, parentheses, dashes, or decimal points; they must always contain an even number of digits. Therefore, whoever is to use the written coordinates must know where to make the split between the RIGHT and UP readings. It is a military requirement that the 100,000-meter square identification letters be included in any point designation. Normally, grid coordinates are determined to the nearest 100 meters (six digits) for reporting locations. With practice, this can be done without using plotting scales. The location of targets and other point locations for fire support are determined to the nearest 10 meters (eight digits).

4-6. LOCATE A POINT USING THE US ARMY MILITARY GRID REFERENCE SYSTEM

a.   Grid Zone. The number 16 locates a point within zone 16, which is an area 6° wide and extends between 80° S latitude and 84° N latitude (Figure 4-8).

b.   Grid Zone Designation. The number and letter combination, 16S, further locates a point within the grid zone designation 16S, which is a quadrangle 6° wide by 8° high. There are 19 of these quads in zone 16. Quad X, which is located between 72° N and 84° N latitude, is 12° high (Figure 4-8).

c.   100,000-Meter Square Identification. The addition of two more letters locates a point within the 100,000-meter grid square. Thus 16SGL (Figure 4-11) locates the point within the 100,000-meter square GL in the grid zone designation 16S. For information on the lettering system of 100,000-meter squares, see TM 5-241-1.

d.   10,000-Meter Square. The breakdown of the US Army military grid reference system continues as each side of the 100,000-meter square is divided into 10 equal parts. This division produces lines that are 10,000 meters apart. Thus the coordinates 16SGL08 would locate a point as shown in Figure 4-20. The 10,000-meter grid lines appear as index (heavier) grid lines on maps at 1:100,000 and larger.

Figure 4-20. The 10,000-meter grid square.

e.   1,000-Meter Square. To obtain 1,000-meter squares, each side of the 10,000-meter square is divided into 10 equal parts. This division appears on large-scale maps as the actual grid lines; they are 1,000 meters apart. On the Columbus map, using coordinates 16SGL0182, the easting 01 and the northing 82 gives the location of the southwest corner of grid square 0182 or to the nearest 1,000 meters of a point on the map (Figure 4-21).

Figure 4-21. The 1,000-meter grid square.

f.   100-Meter Identification. To locate to the nearest 100 meters, the grid coordinate scale can be used to divide the 1,000-meter grid squares into 10 equal parts (Figure 4-22).

Figure 4-22. The 100-meter and 10-meter grid squares.

g.   10-Meter Identification. The grid coordinate scale has divisions every 50 meters on the 1:50,000 scale and every 20 meters on the 1:25,000 scale. These can be used to estimate to the nearest 10 meters and give the location of one point on the earth's surface to the nearest 10 meters.

EXAMPLE: 16SGL01948253 (gas tank) (Figure 4-22).

h.   Precision. The precision of a point's location is shown by the number of digits in the coordinates; the more digits, the more precise the location (Figure 4-22, insert).

4-7. GRID REFERENCE BOX

A grid reference box (Figure 4-23) appears in the marginal information of each map sheet. It contains step-by-step instructions for using the grid and the US Army military grid reference system. The grid reference box is divided into two parts.


Figure 4-23. Grid reference box

a.   The left portion identifies the grid zone designation and the 100,000-meter square. If the sheet falls in more than one 100,000-meter square, the grid lines that separate the squares are shown in the diagram and the letters identifying the 100,000-meter squares are given.

EXAMPLE:   On the Columbus map sheet, the vertical line labeled 00 is the grid line that separates the two 100,000-meter squares, FL and GL. The left portion also shows a sample for the 1,000-meter square with its respective labeled grid coordinate numbers and a sample point within the 1,000-meter square.

b.   The right portion of the grid reference box explains how to use the grid and is keyed on the sample 1,000-meter square of the left side. The following is an example of the military grid reference:

EXAMPLE:   16S locates the 6° by 8° area (grid zone designation).

4-8. OTHER GRID SYSTEMS

a.   British Grids. In a few areas of the world, British grids are still shown on military maps. However, the British grid systems are being phased out. Eventually all military mapping will be converted to the UTM grid.

b.   World Geographic Reference System (GEOREF). This system is a worldwide position reference system used primarily by the US Air Force. It may be used with any map or chart that has latitude and longitude printed on it. Instructions for using GEOREF data are printed in blue and are found in the margin of aeronautical charts (Figure 4-24). This system is based upon a division of the earth's surface into quadrangles of latitude and longitude having a systematic identification code. It is a method of expressing latitude and longitude in a form suitable for rapid reporting and plotting. Figure 4-24 illustrates a sample grid reference box using GEOREF. The GEOREF system uses an identification code that has three main divisions.

Figure 4-24. Sample reference using GEOREF.

(1)   First Division. There are 24 north-south (longitudinal) zones, each 15-degree wide. These zones, starting at 180 degrees and progressing eastward, are lettered A through Z (omitting I and O). The first letter of any GEOREF coordinate identifies the north-south zone in which the point is located. There are 12 east-west (latitudinal) bands, each 15-degree wide. These bands are lettered A through M (omitting I) northward from the south pole. The second letter of any GEOREF coordinate identifies the east-west band in which the point is located. The zones and bands divide the earth's surface into 288 quadrangles, each identified by two letters.

(2)   Second Division. Each 15-degree quadrangle is further divided into 225 quadrangles of 1 degree each (15 degrees by 15 degrees). This division is effected by dividing a basic 15-degree quadrangle into 15 north-south zones and 15 east-west bands. The north-south zones are lettered A through Q (omitting I and O) from west to east. The third letter of any GEOREF coordinate identifies the 1 degree north-south zone within a 15-degree quadrangle. The east-west bands are lettered A through Q (I and O omitted) from south to north. The fourth letter of a GEOREF coordinate identifies the 1 degree east-west band within a 15-degree quadrangle. Four letters identify any 1-degree quadrangle in the world.

(3)   Third Division. Each of the 1-degree quadrangles is divided into 3,600 one-minute quadrangles. These one-minute quadrangles are formed by dividing the 1-degree quadrangles into 60 one-minute north-south zones numbered 0 through 59 from west to east, and 60 east-west bands numbered 0 to 59 from south to north. To designate any one of the 3,600 one-minute quadrangles requires four letters and four numbers. The rule READ RIGHT AND UP is always followed. Numbers 1 through 9 are written as 01, 02, and so forth. Each of the 1-minute quadrangles may be further divided into 10 smaller divisions both north-south and east-west, permitting the identification of 0. 1-minute quadrangles. The GEOREF coordinate for any 0. 1-minute quadrangle consists of four letters and six numbers.

4-9. PROTECTION OF MAP COORDINATES AND LOCATIONS

a.   The authorized numerical code provides a capability for encrypting map references and other numerical information that requires short-term security protection when, for operational reasons, the remainder of the message is transmitted in plain language. The system is published in easy-to-use booklets with sufficient material in each for one month's operation. Sample training editions of this type of system are available through the unit's communications and electronics officer.

b.   The use of any encryption methods other than authorized codes is, by regulation, unauthorized and shall not be used.

CHAPTER 5

SCALE AND DISTANCE

5-1. REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION

a.   The ground distance between two points is determined by measuring between the same two points on the map and then multiplying the map measurement by the denominator of the RF or scale (Figure 5-1).

Figure 5-1. Converting map distance to ground distance.

EXAMPLE:

The map scale is 1:50,000

RF = 1/50,000

The map distance from point A to point B is 5 units

5 x 50,000 = 250,000 units of ground distance

b.   Since the distance on most maps is marked in meters and the RF is expressed in this unit of measurement in most cases, a brief description of the metric system is needed. In the metric system, the standard unit of measurement is the meter.

1 meter contains 100 centimeters (cm).

100 meters is a regular football field plus 10 meters.

1,000 meters is 1 kilometer (km).

10 kilometers is 10,000 meters.

Appendix C contains the conversion tables.

c.   The situation may arise when a map or sketch has no RF or scale. To be able to determine ground distance on such a map, the RF must be determined. There are two ways to do this:

(1)   Comparison with Ground Distance.

(a)   Measure the distance between two points on the map map distance (MD).

(b)   Determine the horizontal distance between these same two points on the ground ground distance (GD).

(c)   Use the RF formula and remember that RF must be in the general form:

(d)   Both the MD and the GD must be in the same unit of measure and the MD must be reduced to 1.

(2)   Comparison With Another Map of the Same Area that Has an RF.

(a)   Select two points on the map with the unknown RF. Measure the distance (MD) between them.

(b)   Locate those same two points on the map that have the known RF. Measure the distance (MD) between them. Using the RF for this map, determine GD, which is the same for both maps.

(c)   Using the GD and the MD from the first map, determine the RF using the formula:

d.   Occasionally it may be necessary to determine map distance from a known ground distance and the RF:

e.   When determining ground distance from a map, the scale of the map affects the accuracy. As the scale becomes smaller, the accuracy of measurement decreases because some of the features on the map must be exaggerated so that they may be readily identified.

5-2. GRAPHIC (BAR) SCALES

A graphic scale is a ruler printed on the map and is used to convert distances on the map to actual ground distances. The graphic scale is divided into two parts. To the right of the zero, the scale is marked in full units of measure and is called the primary scale. To the left of the zero, the scale is divided into tenths and is called the extension scale. Most maps have three or more graphic scales, each using a different unit of measure (Figure 5-2). When using the graphic scale, be sure to use the correct scale for the unit of measure desired.


Figure 5-2. Using a graphic (bar) scale.

a.   To determine straight-line distance between two points on a map, lay a straight-edged piece of paper on the map so that the edge of the paper touches both points and extends past them. Make a tick mark on the edge of the paper at each point (Figure 5-3).

b.   To convert the map distance to ground distance, move the paper down to the graphic bar scale, and align the right tick mark (b) with a printed number in the primary scale so that the left tick mark (a) is in the extension scale (Figure 5-4).

Figure 5-4. Measuring straight-line map distance.

c.   The right tick mark (b) is aligned with the 3,000-meter mark in the primary scale, thus the distance is at least 3,000 meters. To determine the distance between the two points to the nearest 10 meters, look at the extension scale. The extension scale is numbered with zero at the right and increases to the left. When using the extension scale, always read right to left (Figure 5-4). From the zero left to the beginning of the first shaded area is 100 meters. From the beginning of the shaded square to the end of the shaded square is 100 to 200 meters. From the end of the first shaded square to the beginning of the second shaded square is 200 to 300 meters. Remember, the distance in the extension scale increases from right to left.

d.   To determine the distance from the zero to tick mark (a), divide the distance inside the squares into tenths (Figure 5-4). As you break down the distance between the squares in the extension scale into tenths, you will see that tick mark (a) is aligned with the 950-meter mark. Adding the distance of 3,000 meters determined in the primary scale to the 950 meters you determined by using the extension scale, we find that the total distance between points (a) and (b) is 3,950 meters.

e.   To measure distance along a road, stream, or other curved line, the straight edge of a piece of paper is used. In order to avoid confusion concerning the point to begin measuring from and the ending point, an eight-digit coordinate should be given for both the starting and ending points. Place a tick mark on the paper and map at the beginning point from which the curved line is to be measured. Align the edge of the paper along a straight portion and make a tick mark on both map and paper when the edge of the paper leaves the straight portion of the line being measured (Figure 5-5A).

Figure 5-5. Measuring a curved line.

f.   Keeping both tick marks together (on paper and map), place the point of the pencil close to the edge of the paper on the tick mark to hold it in place and pivot the paper until another straight portion of the curved line is aligned with the edge of the paper. Continue in this manner until the measurement is completed (Figure 5-5B).

g.   When you have completed measuring the distance, move the paper to the graphic scale to determine the ground distance. The only tick marks you will be measuring the distance between are tick marks (a) and (b). The tick marks in between are not used (Figure 5-5C).

h.   There may be times when the distance you measure on the edge of the paper exceeds the graphic scale. In this case, there are different techniques you can use to determine the distance.

(1)   One technique is to align the right tick mark (b) with a printed number in the primary scale, in this case the 5. You can see that from point (a) to point (b) is more than 6,000 meters when you add the 1,000 meters in the extension scale. To determine the exact distance to the nearest 10 meters, place a tick mark (c) on the edge of the paper at the end of the extension scale (Figure 5-6A). You know that from point (b) to point (c) is 6,000 meters. With the tick mark (c) placed on the edge of the paper at the end of the extension scale, slide the paper to the right. Remember the distance in the extension is always read from right to left. Align tick mark (c) with zero and then measure the distance between tick marks (a) and (c). The distance between tick marks (a) and (c) is 420 meters. The total ground distance between start and finish points is 6,420 meters (Figure 5-6B).

Figure 5-6. Determining the exact distance.

(2)   Another technique that may be used to determine exact distance between two points when the edge of the paper exceeds the bar scale is to slide the edge of the paper to the right until tick mark (a) is aligned with the edge of the extension scale. Make a tick mark on the paper, in line with the 2,000-meter mark (c) (Figure 5-7A). Then slide the edge of the paper to the left until tick mark (b) is aligned with the zero. Estimate the 100-meter increments into 10-meter increments to determine how many meters tick mark (c) is from the zero line (Figure 5-7B). The total distance would be 3,030 meters.

Figure 5-7. Reading the extension scale.

(3)   At times you may want to know the distance from a point on the map to a point off the map. In order to do this, measure the distance from the start point to the edge of the map. The marginal notes give the road distance from the edge of the map to some towns, highways, or junctions off the map. To determine the total distance, add the distance measured on the map to the distance given in the marginal notes. Be sure the unit of measure is the same.

(4)   When measuring distance in statute or nautical miles, round it off to the nearest one-tenth of a mile and make sure the appropriate bar scale is used.

(5)   Distance measured on a map does not take into consideration the rise and fall of the land. All distances measured by using the map and graphic scales are flat distances. Therefore, the distance measured on a map will increase when actually measured on the ground. This must be taken into consideration when navigating across country.

i.   The amount of time required to travel a certain distance on the ground is an important factor in most military operations. This can be determined if a map of the area is available and a graphic time-distance scale is constructed for use with the map as follows:

For example, if an infantry unit is marching at an average rate (R) of 4 kilometers per hour, it will take about 3 hours (T) to travel 12 kilometers.

j.   To construct a time-distance scale (Figure 5-8A), knowing your length of march, rate of speed, and map scale, that is, 12 kilometers at 3 kilometers per hour on a 1:50,000-scale map, use the following process:

(1)   Mark off the total distance on a line by referring to the graphic scale of the map or, if this is impracticable, compute the length of the line as follows:

(a)   Convert the ground distance to centimeters: 12 kilometers x 100,000 (centimeters per kilometer) = 1,200,000 centimeters.

(b)   Find the length of the line to represent the distance at map scale 

(c)   Construct a line 24 centimeters in length (Figure 5-8A).

Figure 5-8. Constructing a time-distance scale.

(2)   Divide the line by the rate of march into three parts (Figure 5-8B), each part representing the distance traveled in one hour, and label.

(3)   Divide the scale extension (left portion) into the desired number of lesser time divisions 

(4)   Figure 5-8C shows a 5-minute interval scale. Make these divisions in the same manner as for a graphic scale. The completed scale makes it possible to determine where the unit will be at any given time. However, it must be remembered that this scale is for one specific rate of march only, 4 kilometers per hour.

5-3. OTHER METHODS

a.   Pace Count. Another way to measure ground distance is the pace count. A pace is equal to one natural step, about 30 inches long. To accurately use the pace count method, you must know how many paces it takes you to walk 100 meters. To determine this, you must walk an accurately measured course and count the number of paces you take. A pace course can be as short as 100 meters or as long as 600 meters. The pace course, regardless of length, must be on similar terrain to that you will be walking over. It does no good to walk a course on flat terrain and then try to use that pace count on hilly terrain. To determine your pace count on a 600-meter course, count the paces it takes you to walk the 600 meters, then divide the total paces by 6. The answer will give you the average paces it takes you to walk 100 meters. It is important that each person who navigates while dismounted knows his pace count.

(1)   There are many methods to keep track of the distance traveled when using the pace count. Some of these methods are: put a pebble in your pocket every time you have walked 100 meters according to your pace count; tie knots in a string; or put marks in a notebook. Do not try to remember the count; always use one of these methods or design your own method.

(2)   Certain conditions affect your pace count in the field, and you must allow for them by making adjustments.

(a)   Slopes. Your pace lengthens on a downslope and shortens on an upgrade. Keeping this in mind, if it normally takes you 120 paces to walk 100 meters, your pace count may increase to 130 or more when walking up a slope.

(b)   Winds. A head wind shortens the pace and a tail wind increases it.

(c)   Surfaces. Sand, gravel, mud, snow, and similar surface materials tend to shorten the pace.

(d)   Elements. Falling snow, rain, or ice cause the pace to be reduced in length.

(e)   Clothing. Excess clothing and boots with poor traction affect the pace length.

(f)   Visibility. Poor visibility, such as in fog, rain, or darkness, will shorten your pace.

b.   Odometer. Distances can be measured by an odometer, which is standard equipment on most vehicles. Readings are recorded at the start and end of a course and the difference is the length of the course.

(1)   To convert kilometers to miles, multiply the number of kilometers by 0. 62.

EXAMPLE:

16 kilometers = 16 x 0. 62 = 9. 92 miles

(2)   To convert miles to kilometers, divided the number of miles by 0. 62.

EXAMPLE:

10 miles = 10 divided by 0. 62 = 16. 12 kilometers

c.   Subtense. The subtense method is a fast method of determining distance and yields accuracy equivalent to that obtained by measuring distance with a premeasured piece of wire. An advantage is that a horizontal distance is obtained indirectly; that is, the distance is computed rather than measured. This allows subtense to be used over terrain where obstacles such as streams, ravines, or steep slopes may prohibit other methods of determining distance.

(1)   The principle used in determining distance by the subtense method is similar to that used in estimating distance by the mil relation formula. The field artillery application of the mil relation formula involves only estimations. It is not accurate enough for survey purposes. However, the subtense method uses precise values with a trigonometric solution. Subtense is based on a principle of visual perspective the farther away an object, the smaller it appears.

(2)   The following two procedures are involved in subtense measurement:

Establishing a base of known length.

Measuring the angle of that base by use of the aiming circle.

(3)   The subtense base may be any desired length. However, if a 60-meter base, a 2-meter bar, or the length of an M16A1 or M16A2 rifle is used, precomputed subtense tables are available. The M16 or 2-meter bar must be held horizontal and perpendicular to the line of sight by a soldier facing the aiming circle. The instrument operator sights on one end of the M16 or 2-meter bar and measures the horizontal clockwise angle to the other end of the rifle or bar. He does this twice and averages the angles. He then enters the appropriate subtense table with the mean angle and extracts the distance. Accurate distances can be obtained with the M16 out to approximately 150 meters, with the 2-meter bar out to 250 meters, and with the 60-meter base out to 1,000 meters. If a base of another length is desired, a distance can be computed by using the following formula:

d.   Estimation. At times, because of the tactical situation, it may be necessary to estimate range. There are two methods that may be used to estimate range or distance.

(1)   100-Meter Unit-of-Measure Method. To use this method, the soldier must be able to visualize a distance of 100 meters on the ground. For ranges up to 500 meters, he determines the number of 100-meter increments between the two objects he wishes to measure. Beyond 500 meters, the soldier must select a point halfway to the object(s) and determine the number of 100-meter increments to the halfway point, then double it to find the range to the object(s) (Figure 5-9).

Figure 5-9. Using a 100-meter unit-of-measure method.

(2)   Flash-To-Bang Method. To use this method to determine range to an explosion or enemy fire, begin to count when you see the flash. Count the seconds until you hear the weapon fire. This time interval may be measured with a stopwatch or by using a steady count, such as one-thousand-one, one-thousand-two, and so forth, for a three-second estimated count. If you must count higher than 10 seconds, start over with one. Multiply the number of seconds by 330 meters to get the approximate range (FA uses 350 meters instead).

(3)   Proficiency of Methods. The methods discussed above are used only to estimate range (Table 5-1). Proficiency in both methods requires constant practice. The best training technique is to require the soldier to pace the range after he has estimated the distance. In this way, the soldier discovers the actual range for himself, which makes a greater impression than if he is simply told the correct range.

CHAPTER 6

DIRECTION

6-1. METHODS OF EXPRESSING DIRECTION

a.   Degree. The most common unit of measure is the degree (°) with its subdivisions of minutes (') and seconds (").

1 degree = 60 minutes.

1 minute = 60 seconds.

b.   Mil. Another unit of measure, the mil (abbreviated ), is used mainly in artillery, tank, and mortar gunnery. The mil expresses the size of an angle formed when a circle is divided into 6,400 angles, with the vertex of the angles at the center of the circle. A relationship can be established between degrees and mils. A circle equals 6400 mils divided by 360 degrees, or 17.78 mils per degree. To convert degrees to mils, multiply degrees by 17.78.

c.   Grad. The grad is a metric unit of measure found on some foreign maps. There are 400 grads in a circle (a 90-degree right angle equals 100 grads). The grad is divided into 100 centesimal minutes (centigrads) and the minute into 100 centesimal seconds (milligrads).

6-2. BASE LINES

a.   True North. A line from any point on the earth's surface to the north pole. All lines of longitude are true north lines. True north is usually represented by a star (Figure 6-1).

Figure 6-1. Three norths.

b.   Magnetic North. The direction to the north magnetic pole, as indicated by the north-seeking needle of a magnetic instrument. The magnetic north is usually symbolized by a line ending with half of an arrowhead (Figure 6-1). Magnetic readings are obtained with magnetic instruments, such as lensatic and M2 compasses.

c.   Grid North. The north that is established by using the vertical grid lines on the map. Grid north may be symbolized by the letters GN or the letter "y" (Figure 6-1).

6-3. AZIMUTHS

An azimuth is defined as a horizontal angle measured clockwise from a north base line. This north base line could be true north, magnetic north, or grid north. The azimuth is the most common military method to express direction. When using an azimuth, the point from which the azimuth originates is the center of an imaginary circle (Figure 6-2). This circle is divided into 360 degrees or 6400 mils (Appendix G).


Figure 6-2. Origin of azimuth circle.

a.   Back Azimuth. A back azimuth is the opposite direction of an azimuth. It is comparable to doing "about face." To obtain a back azimuth from an azimuth, add 180 degrees if the azimuth is 180 degrees or less, or subtract 180 degrees if the azimuth is 180 degrees or more (Figure 6-3). The back azimuth of 180 degrees may be stated as 0 degrees or 360 degrees. For mils, if the azimuth is less than 3200 mils, add 3200 mils, if the azimuth is more than 3200 mils, subtract 3200 mils.

Figure 6-3. Back azimuth.

b.   Magnetic Azimuth. The magnetic azimuth is determined by using magnetic instruments, such as lensatic and M2 compasses. Refer to Chapter 9, paragraph 4, for details.

c.   Field-Expedient Methods. Several field-expedient methods to determine direction are discussed in Chapter 9, paragraph 5.

6-4. GRID AZIMUTHS

When an azimuth is plotted on a map between point A (starting point) and point B (ending point), the points are joined together by a straight line. A protractor is used to measure the angle between grid north and the drawn line, and this measured azimuth is the grid azimuth (Figure 6-4).


Figure 6-4. Measuring an azimuth.

6-5. PROTRACTOR

There are several types of protractors full circle, half circle, square, and rectangular (Figure 6-5). All of them divide the circle into units of angular measure, and each has a scale around the outer edge and an index mark. The index mark is the center of the protractor circle from which all directions are measured.


Figure 6-5. Types of protractors.

a.   The military protractor, GTA 5-2-12, contains two scales: one in degrees (inner scale) and one in mils (outer scale). This protractor represents the azimuth circle. The degree scale is graduated from 0 to 360 degrees; each tick mark on the degree scale represents one degree. A line from 0 to 180 degrees is called the base line of the protractor. Where the base line intersects the horizontal line, between 90 and 270 degrees, is the index or center of the protractor (Figure 6-6).

Figure 6-6. Military protractor.

b.   When using the protractor, the base line is always oriented parallel to a north-south grid line. The 0- or 360-degree mark is always toward the top or north on the map and the 90° mark is to the right.

(1)   To determine the grid azimuth 

(a)   Draw a line connecting the two points (A and B).

(b)   Place the index of the protractor at the point where the drawn line crosses a vertical (north-south) grid line.

(c)   Keeping the index at this point, align the 0- to 180-degree line of the protractor on the vertical grid line.

(d)   Read the value of the angle from the scale; this is the grid azimuth from point A to point B (Figure 6-4).

(2)   To plot an azimuth from a known point on a map (Figure 6-7) 

(a)   Convert the azimuth from magnetic to grid, if necessary. (See paragraph 6-6.)

(b)   Place the protractor on the map with the index mark at the center of mass of the known point and the base line parallel to a north-south grid line.

(c)   Make a mark on the map at the desired azimuth.

(d)   Remove the protractor and draw a line connecting the known point and the mark on the map. This is the grid direction line (azimuth).

Figure 6-7. Plotting an azimuth on the map.

c.   To obtain an accurate reading with the protractor (to the nearest degree or 10 mils), there are two techniques to check that the base line of the protractor is parallel to a north-south grid line.

(1)   Place the protractor index where the azimuth line cuts a north-south grid line, aligning the base line of the protractor directly over the intersection of the azimuth line with the north-south grid line. The user should be able to determine whether the initial azimuth reading was correct.

(2)   The user should re-read the azimuth between the azimuth and north-south grid line to check the initial azimuth.

(3)   Note that the protractor is cut at both the top and bottom by the same north-south grid line. Count the number of degrees from the 0-degree mark at the top of the protractor to this north-south grid line and then count the number of degrees from the 180-degree mark at the bottom of the protractor to this same grid line. If the two counts are equal, the protractor is properly aligned.

6-6. DECLINATION DIAGRAM

Declination is the angular difference between any two norths. If you have a map and a compass, the one of most interest to you will be between magnetic and grid north. The declination diagram (Figure 6-8) shows the angular relationship, represented by prongs, among grid, magnetic, and true norths. While the relative positions of the prongs are correct, they are seldom plotted to scale. Do not use the diagram to measure a numerical value. This value will be written in the map margin (in both degrees and mils) beside the diagram.


Figure 6-8. Declination diagrams.

a.   Location. A declination diagram is a part of the information in the lower margin on most larger maps. On medium-scale maps, the declination information is shown by a note in the map margin.

b.   Grid-Magnetic Angle. The G-M angle value is the angular size that exists between grid north and magnetic north. It is an arc, indicated by a dashed line, that connects the grid-north and magnetic-north prongs. This value is expressed to the nearest 1/2 degree, with mil equivalents shown to the nearest 10 mils. The G-M angle is important to the map reader/land navigator because azimuths translated between map and ground will be in error by the size of the declination angle if not adjusted for it.

c.   Grid Convergence. An arc indicated by a dashed line connects the prongs for true north and grid north. The value of the angle for the center of the sheet is given to the nearest full minute with its equivalent to the nearest mil. These data are shown in the form of a grid-convergence note.

d.   Conversion. There is an angular difference between the grid north and the magnetic north. Since the location of magnetic north does not correspond exactly with the grid-north lines on the maps, a conversion from magnetic to grid or vice versa is needed.

(1)   With Notes. Simply refer to the conversion notes that appear in conjunction with the diagram explaining the use of the G-M angle (Figure 6-8). One note provides instructions for converting magnetic azimuth to grid azimuth; the other, for converting grid azimuth to magnetic azimuth. The conversion (add or subtract) is governed by the direction of the magnetic-north prong relative to that of the north-grid prong.

(2)   Without Notes. In some cases, there are no declination conversion notes on the margin of the map; it is necessary to convert from one type of declination to another. A magnetic compass gives a magnetic azimuth; but in order to plot this line on a gridded map, the magnetic azimuth value must be changed to grid azimuth. The declination diagram is used for these conversions. A rule to remember when solving such problems is this: No matter where the azimuth line points, the angle to it is always measured clockwise from the reference direction (base line). With this in mind, the problem is solved by the following steps:

(a)   Draw a vertical or grid-north line (prong). Always align this line with the vertical lines on a map (Figure 6-9).

Figure 6-9. Declination diagram with arbitrary line.

(b)   From the base of the grid-north line (prong), draw an arbitrary line (or any azimuth line) at a roughly right angle to north, regardless of the actual value of the azimuth in degrees (Figure 6-9).

(c)   Examine the declination diagram on the map and determine the direction of the magnetic north (right-left or east-west) relative to that of the grid-north prong. Draw a magnetic prong from the apex of the grid-north line in the desired direction (Figure 6-9).

(d)   Determine the value of the G-M angle. Draw an arc from the grid prong to the magnetic prong and place the value of the G-M angle (Figure 6-9).

(e)   Complete the diagram by drawing an arc from each reference line to the arbitrary line. A glance at the completed diagram shows whether the given azimuth or the desired azimuth is greater, and thus whether the known difference between the two must be added or subtracted.

(f)   The inclusion of the true-north prong in relationship to the conversion is of little importance.

e.   Applications. Remember, there are no negative azimuths on the azimuth circle. Since 0 degree is the same as 360 degrees, then 2 degrees is the same as 362 degrees. This is because 2 degrees and 362 degrees are located at the same point on the azimuth circle. The grid azimuth can now be converted into a magnetic azimuth because the grid azimuth is now larger than the G-M angle.

(1)   When working with a map having an east G-M angle:

(a)   To plot a magnetic azimuth on a map, first change it to a grid azimuth (Figure 6-10).

Figure 6-10. Converting to grid azimuth.

(b)   To use a magnetic azimuth in the field with a compass, first change the grid azimuth plotted on a map to a magnetic azimuth (Figure 6-11).

Figure 6-11. Converting to magnetic azimuth.

(c)   Convert a grid azimuth to a magnetic azimuth when the G-M angle is greater than a grid azimuth (Figure 6-12).

Figure 6-12. Converting to a magnetic azimuth when the G-M angle is greater.

(2)   When working with a map having a west G-M angle:

(a)   To plot a magnetic azimuth on a map, first convert it to a grid azimuth (Figure 6-13).

Figure 6-13. Converting to a grid azimuth on a map.

(b)   To use a magnetic azimuth in the field with a compass, change the grid azimuth plotted on a map to a magnetic azimuth (Figure 6-14).

Figure 6-14. Converting to a magnetic azimuth on a map.

(c)   Convert a magnetic azimuth when the G-M angle is greater than the magnetic azimuth (Figure 6-15).

Figure 6-15. Converting to a grid azimuth when the G-M angle is greater.

(3)   The G-M angle diagram should be constructed and used each time the conversion of azimuth is required. Such procedure is important when working with a map for the first time. It also may be convenient to construct a G-M angle conversion table on the margin of the map.

6-7. INTERSECTION

Intersection is the location of an unknown point by successively occupying at least two (preferably three) known positions on the ground and then map sighting on the unknown location. It is used to locate distant or inaccessible points or objects such as enemy targets and danger areas. There are two methods of intersection: the map and compass method and the straightedge method (Figures 6-16 and 6-17)

.
Figure 6-16. Intersection, using map and compass.


Figure 6-17. Intersection, using a straightedge.

a.   When using the map and compass method 

(1)   Orient the map using the compass.

(2)   Locate and mark your position on the map,

(3)   Determine the magnetic azimuth to the unknown position using the compass.

(4)   Convert the magnetic azimuth to grid azimuth.

(5)   Draw a line on the map from your position on this grid azimuth.

(6)   Move to a second known point and repeat steps 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.

(7)   The location of the unknown position is where the lines cross on the map. Determine the grid coordinates to the desired accuracy.

b.   The straight edge method is used when a compass is not available. When using it 

(1)   Orient the map on a flat surface by the terrain association method.

(2)   Locate and mark your position on the map.

(3)   Lay a straight edge on the map with one end at the user�s position (A) as a pivot point; then, rotate the straightedge until the unkown point is sighted along the edge.

(4)   Draw a line along the straight edge

(5)   Repeat the above steps at position (B) and check for accuracy.

(6)   The intersection of the lines on the map is the location of the unknown point (C). Determine the grid coordinates to the desired accuracy (Figure 6-17).

6-8. RESECTION

a.   When using the map and compass method (Figure 6-18) 

(1)   Orient the map using the compass.

(2)   Identify two or three known distant locations on the ground and mark them on the map.

(3)   Measure the magnetic azimuth to one of the known positions from your location using a compass.

(4)   Convert the magnetic azimuth to a grid azimuth.

(5)   Convert the grid azimuth to a back azimuth. Using a protractor, draw a line for the back azimuth on the map from the known position back toward your unknown position.

(6)   Repeat 3, 4, and 5 for a second position and a third position, if desired.

(7)   The intersection of the lines is your location. Determine the grid coordinates to the desired accuracy.

Figure 6-18. Resection with map and compass.

a.   When using the straightedge method (Figure 6-19) 

(1)   Orient the map on a flat surface by the terrain association method.

(2)   Locate at least two known distant locations or prominent features on the ground and mark them on the map.

(3)   Lay a straightedge on the map using a known position as a pivot point. Rotate the straightedge until the known position on the map is aligned with the known position on the ground.

(4)   Draw a line along the straightedge away from the known position on the ground toward your position.

(5)   Repeat 3 and 4 using a second known position.

(6)   The intersection of the lines on the map is your location. Determine the grid coordinates to the desired accuracy.

Figure 6-19. Resection with straightedge.

6-9. MODIFIED RESECTION

a.   Orient the map using a compass or by terrain association.

b.   Find a distant point that can be identified on the ground and on the map.

c.   Determine the magnetic azimuth from your location to the distant known point.

d.   Convert the magnetic azimuth to a grid azimuth.

e.   Convert the grid azimuth to a back azimuth. Using a protractor, draw a line for the back azimuth on the map from the known position back toward your unknown position.

f.   The location of the user is where the line crosses the linear feature. Determine the grid coordinates to the desired accuracy.

Figure 6-20. Modified resection.

6-10. POLAR COORDINATES

Present known location on the map.

Azimuth (grid or magnetic).

Distance (in meters).

Figure 6-21. Polar plot.

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